Research-based Instructional Framework/Strategies
1 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is situated within the social constructivist paradigm. Students work on projects or problems in teams with both personal and team accountability for conceptual understanding.
http://www.kaganonline.com/KaganClub/index.html
http://edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.literacynet.org/icans/chapter01/overview.html
2
Differentiated
Instruction
A fuller definition of differentiated instruction is that a teacher proactively plans varied approaches to what students need to learn, how they will learn it, and/or how they can express what they have learned in order to increase the likelihood that each student will learn as much as he or she can as efficiently as possible. (Tomlinson, 2003, p. 151)
http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html
http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/ILSdir/styles.htm
http://www.emints.org/ethemes/resources/S00001855.shtml
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/c64/
3
Socratic Seminar
Socratic Seminars are a highly motivating form of intellectual and scholarly discourse conducted in K-12 classrooms. They usually range from 30-50 minutes-longer if time allows-once a week. Socratic Seminars foster active learning as participants explore and evaluate the ideas, issues, and values in a particular text.
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/socratic.htm
http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/SocraticSeminars/overview.htm
http://www.webenglishteacher.com/socratic.html
http://www.johnhritter.com/CUS-Guides.html#CUS-Socratic
4
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal Teaching
(Continued)
Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue.
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38.htm
http://web001.greece.k12.ny.us/academics.cfm?subpage=930
http://www.newton.k12.ks.us/Dist/curr/bp/lit/reciprocal_teaching.htm
http://condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~yq6048/
(Follow link to a research paper)
5
Concept Attainment
In concept attainment, students figure out the attributes of a group or category that has already been formed by the teacher. To do so, students compare and contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do not contain those attributes. They then separate them into two groups. Concept attainment, then, is the search for and identification of attributes that can be used to distinguish examples of a given group or category from non-examples.
http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/strats/cattain/index.html
http://www.western.edu/faculty/kwieseman/ELL/sheltered_instruction_shortstory-Danos/concept_attainment_ppt.ppt
http://www.slideworld.com/slideshows.aspx/CONCEPT-ATTAINMENT-MODEL-ppt-1244386
http://members.cox.net/tmccabe_2/SEASAND/WhatIsLife.ppt
6
Problem-based
Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is focused, experiential learning (minds-on, hands-on) organized around the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems…PBL curriculum provides authentic experiences that foster active learning, support knowledge construction, and naturally integrate school learning and real life, this curriculum approach also addresses state and national standards and integrates disciplines…
http://www.ncsu.edu/pbl/
http://www.usc.edu/hsc/dental/ccmb/usc-csp/Quikfacts.htm
http://cte.umdnj.edu/active_learning/active_pbl.cfm
https://chico.nss.udel.edu/Pbl/index.jsp
(The above link requires you apply to be a part of this sites Clearinghouse. It cost nothing. If you are accepted the lesson plans are super and can easily be adapted to K-12!)
7
Learning Focused
Instruction
LEARNING-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION© is a comprehensive continuous school improvement model. It provides schools with consistent learning and exemplary strategies instruction. Learning-Focused Instruction© integrates research-based exemplary practices.
http://www.learningfocused.com
http://www.learningfocused.com/product-info.php?id=30
(Once at this link use top right tab labeled “Essentials” to pull down and find current research.)
8
Frayer Model
The framework of the Frayer Model includes: the concept word, the definition, characteristics of the concept word, examples of the concept word, and non examples of the concept word. It is important to include both examples and non examples, so students are able to identify what the concept word is and what the concept word is not.
http://www.longwood.edu/staff/jonescd/projects/educ530/aboxley/graphicorg/fraym.htm
http://www.justreadnow.com/strategies/frayer.htm
(This site also has video clips)
http://wvde.state.wv.us/strategybank/FrayerModel.html
http://www.tantasqua.org/superintendent/Profdevelopment/etfrayermodel.html
9
Concept Formation
Concept Formation or Concept Development Model by Hilda Taba (1966) is used to enhance the thinking skills of students. It gives students practice in categorizing, and developing, extending, and refining concepts.
http://www.math.ccsu.edu/mitchell/mat520conceptdevelopmentmodel.ppt.
(Follow this link and just click cancel when asked for login info. And PowerPoint will load)
http://www.tantasqua.org/superintendent/Profdevelopment/etfrayermodel.html
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/method.html
(This site can take you to several of the 28 strategies)
http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/ConceptsTch.htm
10
Backward Design
Backward Design (Continued)
Backward Design is an approach to instructional design (promoted by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, 1998), with curriculum units around these types of questions: What enduring understanding do I want my students to develop? How will I know that my students have learned what I want them to learn? How will I engage my students in the instruction?
http://innovateonline.info/extra.php?id=2157
http://www.jaymctighe.com/ubdweblinks.html#lessonplans
(You may follow this link to multiple sites)
http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/6-12/BackwardDesign/BDstep1.htm
http://www.education.uiowa.edu/resources/epls/eportfolio/07b381folder/Backward-Design.pdf (Great example!)
11
Dimension of learning
Dimension of Learning is a comprehensive model that defines the learning process. Its premise is that five types of thinking—what we call the five dimensions of learning—are essential to successful learning. These five dimensions focus on (1) attitudes and perceptions; (2) acquiring and integrating of knowledge; (3) extending and refining knowledge; (4) using knowledge meaningful; (5) acquiring productive habits of mind.
http://www.mcrel.org/dimensions/whathow.asp
http://www.pgcps.org/~elc/dolref.html
(Follow this link to multiple sites)
http://www.scivee.tv/node/9721
(This site contains a video lecture)
http://www.kurwongbss.eq.edu.au/thinking/Dimensions/dimensions.htm (Great 1 page handout)
12
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal Teaching
(Continued)
The ability to break a concept into its similar and dissimilar characteristics allow students to understand (and often solve) complex problems by analyzing them in a more simple way. Teachers can either directly present similarities and differences, accompanied by deep discussion and inquiry, or simply ask students to identify similarities and differences on their own. While teacher-directed activities focus on identifying specific items, student-directed activities encourage variations and broaden understanding, research shows. Research also notes that graphic forms are a good way to represent similarities and differences.
Applications:
*Use Venn diagrams or charts to compare and classify items.
*Engage students in comparing, classifying and creating metaphors and analogies by using The Thinking Maps© materials.
http://www.middleweb.com/MWLresources/
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.bookladymel.com/thinkingmaps.htm
(This site allows you to print student size Thinking Maps)
http://www.scribd.com/doc/7136653/Thinking-Maps
(This site contains a PP on the Thinking Maps)
13
Summarizing and Note taking
These skills promote greater comprehension by asking students to analyze a subject to expose what’s essential and then put it in their own words. According to research, this requires substituting, deleting, and keeping some things and having an awareness of the basic structure of the information presented.
Applications:
*Provide a set of rules for creating a summary.
*When summarizing, ask students to question what is unclear, clarify those questions, and then predict what will happen next in the text.
Research shows that taking more notes is better than fewer notes, though verbatim note taking is ineffective because it does not allow time to process the information. Teachers should encourage and give time for review and revision of notes; notes can be the best study guides for tests.
Applications:
*Use teacher-prepared notes
*Stick to a consistent format for notes, although students can refine the notes as necessary.
http://www.middleweb.com/MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://classroom.leanderisdorg/web/marazano/
http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/ACCDitg/SSnote.htm
(Follow this site to SQ3R and the Cornell Method of Note taking)
http://its.guilford.k12.nc.us/act/strategies/summary.htm
(Follow this site to a wide variety of activities to help students summarize)
14
Reinforcing Effort & Providing Recognition
Reinforcing Effort & Providing Recognition
(Continued)
Effort and recognition speak to the attitudes and beliefs of students, and teachers must show the connection between effort and achievement. Research shows that although not all students realize the importance of effort, they can learn to change their beliefs to emphasize effort.
Application:
*Share stories about people who succeeded by not giving up.
*Have students keep a log of their weekly efforts and achievements, reflect on it periodically, and even mathematically analyze the data.
According to research, recognition is most effective if it is contingent on the achievement of a certain standard. Also, symbolic recognition works better than tangible reward.
Applications:
*Find ways to personalize recognition. Give awards for individual accomplishments.
*”Pause, Prompt, Praise.” If a student is struggling, pause to discuss the problem, then prompt with specific suggestions to help her improve. If the student’s performance improves as a result, offer praise.
http://www.middleweb.com/MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://manila.esu4.org/instructionalstrategies/stories/storyReader$9
(This is a one page document taken from Marzano’s work)
http://gets.gc.k12.va.us/VSTE/2008/3effortandrecognition.htm
(Follow this link to sites that allow you to create specific award documents)
15
Non-linguistic Representation
According to research, knowledge is stored in two forms: linguistic and visual. The more students use both forms in the classroom, the more opportunity they have to achieve. Recently, use of nonlinguistic representation has proven to not only stimulate but also increase brain activity.
Applications:
*Incorporate words and images using symbols to represent relationships.
*Use physical models and physical movement to represent information.
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/nonl.php
http://www.hobart.k12.in.us/peggy/digital/class/study.pdf
(This link takes you to a PP presentation taken from “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
http://www.netc.org/focus/
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
16
Homework & Practice
(Refer to PCS Policy)
Homework & Practice
(Continued)
Homework provides students with the opportunity to extend their learning outside the classroom. However, research shows that the amount of homework assigned should vary by grade level and that parent involvement should be minimal. Teachers should explain the purpose of homework to both the student and the parent or guardian, and teachers should try to give feedback on all homework assigned.
Applications:
*Establish a homework policy with advice-such as keeping a consistent schedule, setting, and time limit-that parents and students may not have considered.
*Tell students if homework is for practice or for preparation for upcoming units.
*Maximize the effectiveness of feedback by varying the way it is delivered.
Research shows that students adapt skills while they’re learning them. Speed and accuracy are key indicators of the effectiveness of practice.
Applications:
*Assign timed quizzes for homework and have students report on their speed and accuracy.
*Focus practice on difficult concepts and set aside time to accommodate practice periods.
http://www.middleweb.com?MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.netc.org/focus/
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
http://manila.esu4.org/instructionalstrategies/stories/storyReader$10
17
Setting Objectives & Providing Feedback
Setting Objectives & Providing Feedback
Setting objectives can provide students with a direction for their learning. Goals should not be too specific; they should be easily adaptable to students’ own objectives.
Applications:
*Set a core for a unit, and then encourage students to personalize that goal by identifying areas of interest to them. Questions like “I want to know” and “I want to know more about…” get students thinking about their interests and actively involved in the goal-setting process.
*Use contracts to outline the specific goals that must attain and the grade they will receive if they meet those goals.
Research shows that feedback generally produces positive results. Teachers can never give too much; however, they should manage the form that feedback takes.
Applications:
*Make sure feedback is corrective in nature; tell students how they did in relation to specific levels of knowledge. Rubrics are a great way to do this.
*Keep feedback timely and specific.
* Encourage students to lead feedback sessions.
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://manila.esu4.org/instructionalstrategies/stories/storyReader$13
http://www.agls.uidaho.edu/fcsed/FCS461/Setting%20objectives%20and%20Providing%20feedback.pdf
(This site takes you to a PP presentation)
http://allenswanson.org/marzano/Setting_Objectives_and_Feedback.htm
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
18
Generating & Testing Hypothesis
Research shows that a deductive approach (using a general rule to make prediction) to this strategy works best. Whether a hypothesis is induced or deduced, students should clearly explain their hypotheses and conclusions.
Applications:
*Ask students to predict what would happen if an aspect of a familiar system, such as the government or transportation, were changed.
*Ask students to build something using limited resources. This task generates questions and hypotheses about what may or may not work.
http://allenswanson.org/marzano/Setting_Objectives_and_Feedback.htm
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
http://www.middleweb.com/MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://www.classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano
http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/gene.php
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
19
Cues, Questions & Advanced Organizers
Cues, Questions & Advanced Organizers
(Continued)
Cues, questions, and advance organizers help students use what they already know about a topic to enhance further learning. Research shows that these tools should be highly analytical, should focus on what is important, and are most effective when presented before a learning experience.
Applications:
*Pause briefly after asking a question. Doing so will increase the depth of your students’ answers.
*Vary the style of advance organizer used: Tell a story, skim a text, or create a graphic image. There are many ways to expose students to information before they “learn” it.
http://wwww.middleweb.com/MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/gene.php
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
http://allenswanson.org/marzano/Setting_Objectives_and_Feedback.htm
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
20
Mnemonics
Mnemonics are strategies for memorizing and assimilating information. It can help people to master interesting concepts and provide a lot of fun doing so. Teachers can use mnemonics to guide their presentations of material and they can teach devices that students can use to enhance their individual and cooperative study of information and concepts.
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/C0110291/tricks/mnemonics/index.php
http://www.mnemonic-device.eu/mnemonics/
(This is a fabulous resource that lists thousands)
http://www.ict4us.com/mnemonics/
(Student friendly listing.)
21
Simulations
Simulations are constructed from descriptions of real life situations. A less than real life situation is created for the instructional situation. The student engages in activity to achieve the goal of the simulation and has to do with realistic factors until the goal is mastered.
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
http://clifmims.com/blog/archives/61
http://www.brandon-hall.com/workplacelearningtoday/?p=5241
http://simschoolresources.ed.greenriver.org/portal/simschoolresources/simulations
(Follow this link to multiple sites/articles on this topic)
22
Group Investigation
Group Investigation
(Continued)
Group investigation is the direct route to the development of the community of learners. A substantial part of a students’ education should be by cooperative inquiry into important social or academic problems. Group investigation has been designed to lead students to define problems, explore various perspectives on the problems, and study together to master information, ideas, and skills-simultaneously developing their social competence.
http://wblrd.sk.ca/~bestpractice/coop/examples11.html
(A one page explanation of Group Investigations)
http://www.danielzingaro.com/gi.pdf
(This site is pulled from Cooperative Learning sites)
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
http://memory.loc.gov/learn/lessons/97/week/whome.html
(The site presents a lesson plan on US History)
23
Scientific Inquiry
From the beginning the student is brought into the scientific process and helped to collect and analyze data, check out hypotheses and theories, and reflect on the nature of knowledge construction.
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/scientific.htm
(Topic defined)
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1002
(This is our North Carolina DPI site.)
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/matrix.php
(This site contains links to multiple sites on multiple science related topics)
24
Jurisprudential
Inquiry
This model is designed for secondary students in the social studies and implies the case study method, reminiscent of legal education. Students study cases involving social problems in areas where public policy is to be made (justice and equality, poverty and power etc.) They are led to identify the public policy issues as well as options available for dealing with them and the values underlying those options dealing with them and values underlying those options. This model can be used in any area where there are public policy issues for instances ethics in science, business and sports etc.
http://59.163.61.3:8080/GRATEST/SHOWTEXFILE.do?page_id=user_image&user_image_id=256
(You must scroll down ½ this document to find this model)
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
25
Role Play
Role Play
(Continued)
Role playing helps students to understand social behavior, their role in social interactions, and ways of solving problems more effectively. It also helps students collect and organize information about social issues, develop empathy with others, and attempt to improve their social skills. The model requires of students to:”act out” conflicts, to learn to take the roles of others, and to observe social behavior. With adaptation role playing can be used with students of all ages.
http://www.wce.wwu.edu/Resources/CIRCLE/Strats/Role%20Playing.pdf
(PP Presentation on topic)
http://esldrama.weebly.com/how_to_roleplay.html
http://www.landmarkcases.org/pdf/role_play.pdf
http://www.jstor.org/pss/4449909
26
Teams Games Tournament
Team Games Tournaments are a cooperative learning strategy developed at John Hopkins University. It can be used as an assessment alternative and/or as a review technique.
http://www.cust.educ.ubc.ca/cust565-05/seeds/2006/213_06/CADIZ/TXT/MicroteachingTGT.pdf
(Defines topic)
http://books.google.com/books?id=gD7_VSNmu7cC&pg=RA1-PA173&lpg=RA1-PA173&dq=teams+games+tournaments&source=bl&ots=nUSpRmBwHV&sig=lyGxizi24YSGbcO4VfphKA_GXMk&hl=en&ei=ONZDSoPADZLmM6DzqZ8B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7
(The above site is a portion of a chapter taken from the work of Brophy.)
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1995/tournaments.php
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/bi/1995/tournaments.html
27
Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)
Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)
(Continued)
STAD is one of these three strategies under the umbrella of Student Learning Teams developed at John Hopkins University based on years of research on cooperative learning. In STAD, students study with 4-5 team members following a teacher presentation. Students take quizzes individually to demonstrate how much they have learned. The individual quiz scores are summed to form a team score, and teams are rewarded for their performance. Teams are made up of students with varying academic abilities, genders, and race. The entire cycle of activities, from teacher presentation to team practice to quiz, usually takes 3 to 5 class periods. STAD has been used in a wide variety of subjects, from math to language arts to social studies, and has been used from grade 2 through college. It is most appropriate for teaching well-defined objectives with single right answers, such as specific locational characteristics in geography and some map skills, knowledge of evens in history, and principles of economics or government.
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/stad.htm
http://books.google.com/books?id=gD7_VSNmu7cC&pg=RA1-PA173&lpg=RA1-PA173&dq=teams+games+tournaments&source=bl&ots=nUSpRmBwHV&sig=lyGxizi24YSGbcO4VfphKA_GXMk&hl=en&ei=ONZDSoPADZLmM6DzqZ8B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7
(The above site is a portion of a chapter taken from the work of Brophy.)
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/stad.htm
(Defines topic)
http://www.scribd.com/doc/3407929/Guidelines-Cooperative-Learning?__cache_revision=1234856118&__user_id=-1&enable_docview_caching=1
(Written by Slavin)
http://books.google.com/books?id=5fEVBpweaTgC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=student+teams+achievement+division&source=bl&ots=WyFjWqa8u6&sig=yCWeDcGVJ9hFDHSp14ropInu__A&hl=en&ei=V9pDSvWpNMWptgfJiZytAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3
(Read section on Co-operation verses Competition)
28
Synectics
Synetics operates on the principle that, by using the mind’s remarkable capacity to connect seemingly irrelevant elements of thought, we can spark surprising new ideas that may later be developed into feasible solutions to problems.
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/synectics.htm
http://books.google.com/books?id=aZ1XYfkghQ0C&pg=PA384&lpg=PA384&dq=synectic+model+of+instruction&source=bl&ots=Tq4TVVWCFj&sig=r6s3Dld5CpwBX7wUijM9LqXnEc4&hl=en&ei=o9tDSo6CIpCINuPa6Z8B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10
(Topic defined)
1 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is situated within the social constructivist paradigm. Students work on projects or problems in teams with both personal and team accountability for conceptual understanding.
http://www.kaganonline.com/KaganClub/index.html
http://edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.literacynet.org/icans/chapter01/overview.html
2
Differentiated
Instruction
A fuller definition of differentiated instruction is that a teacher proactively plans varied approaches to what students need to learn, how they will learn it, and/or how they can express what they have learned in order to increase the likelihood that each student will learn as much as he or she can as efficiently as possible. (Tomlinson, 2003, p. 151)
http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html
http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/ILSdir/styles.htm
http://www.emints.org/ethemes/resources/S00001855.shtml
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/c64/
3
Socratic Seminar
Socratic Seminars are a highly motivating form of intellectual and scholarly discourse conducted in K-12 classrooms. They usually range from 30-50 minutes-longer if time allows-once a week. Socratic Seminars foster active learning as participants explore and evaluate the ideas, issues, and values in a particular text.
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/socratic.htm
http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/SocraticSeminars/overview.htm
http://www.webenglishteacher.com/socratic.html
http://www.johnhritter.com/CUS-Guides.html#CUS-Socratic
4
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal Teaching
(Continued)
Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue.
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk38.htm
http://web001.greece.k12.ny.us/academics.cfm?subpage=930
http://www.newton.k12.ks.us/Dist/curr/bp/lit/reciprocal_teaching.htm
http://condor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/~yq6048/
(Follow link to a research paper)
5
Concept Attainment
In concept attainment, students figure out the attributes of a group or category that has already been formed by the teacher. To do so, students compare and contrast examples that contain the attributes of the concept with examples that do not contain those attributes. They then separate them into two groups. Concept attainment, then, is the search for and identification of attributes that can be used to distinguish examples of a given group or category from non-examples.
http://olc.spsd.sk.ca/DE/PD/instr/strats/cattain/index.html
http://www.western.edu/faculty/kwieseman/ELL/sheltered_instruction_shortstory-Danos/concept_attainment_ppt.ppt
http://www.slideworld.com/slideshows.aspx/CONCEPT-ATTAINMENT-MODEL-ppt-1244386
http://members.cox.net/tmccabe_2/SEASAND/WhatIsLife.ppt
6
Problem-based
Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is focused, experiential learning (minds-on, hands-on) organized around the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems…PBL curriculum provides authentic experiences that foster active learning, support knowledge construction, and naturally integrate school learning and real life, this curriculum approach also addresses state and national standards and integrates disciplines…
http://www.ncsu.edu/pbl/
http://www.usc.edu/hsc/dental/ccmb/usc-csp/Quikfacts.htm
http://cte.umdnj.edu/active_learning/active_pbl.cfm
https://chico.nss.udel.edu/Pbl/index.jsp
(The above link requires you apply to be a part of this sites Clearinghouse. It cost nothing. If you are accepted the lesson plans are super and can easily be adapted to K-12!)
7
Learning Focused
Instruction
LEARNING-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION© is a comprehensive continuous school improvement model. It provides schools with consistent learning and exemplary strategies instruction. Learning-Focused Instruction© integrates research-based exemplary practices.
http://www.learningfocused.com
http://www.learningfocused.com/product-info.php?id=30
(Once at this link use top right tab labeled “Essentials” to pull down and find current research.)
8
Frayer Model
The framework of the Frayer Model includes: the concept word, the definition, characteristics of the concept word, examples of the concept word, and non examples of the concept word. It is important to include both examples and non examples, so students are able to identify what the concept word is and what the concept word is not.
http://www.longwood.edu/staff/jonescd/projects/educ530/aboxley/graphicorg/fraym.htm
http://www.justreadnow.com/strategies/frayer.htm
(This site also has video clips)
http://wvde.state.wv.us/strategybank/FrayerModel.html
http://www.tantasqua.org/superintendent/Profdevelopment/etfrayermodel.html
9
Concept Formation
Concept Formation or Concept Development Model by Hilda Taba (1966) is used to enhance the thinking skills of students. It gives students practice in categorizing, and developing, extending, and refining concepts.
http://www.math.ccsu.edu/mitchell/mat520conceptdevelopmentmodel.ppt.
(Follow this link and just click cancel when asked for login info. And PowerPoint will load)
http://www.tantasqua.org/superintendent/Profdevelopment/etfrayermodel.html
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/mcvittiej/method.html
(This site can take you to several of the 28 strategies)
http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/ConceptsTch.htm
10
Backward Design
Backward Design (Continued)
Backward Design is an approach to instructional design (promoted by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe, 1998), with curriculum units around these types of questions: What enduring understanding do I want my students to develop? How will I know that my students have learned what I want them to learn? How will I engage my students in the instruction?
http://innovateonline.info/extra.php?id=2157
http://www.jaymctighe.com/ubdweblinks.html#lessonplans
(You may follow this link to multiple sites)
http://www.greece.k12.ny.us/instruction/ela/6-12/BackwardDesign/BDstep1.htm
http://www.education.uiowa.edu/resources/epls/eportfolio/07b381folder/Backward-Design.pdf (Great example!)
11
Dimension of learning
Dimension of Learning is a comprehensive model that defines the learning process. Its premise is that five types of thinking—what we call the five dimensions of learning—are essential to successful learning. These five dimensions focus on (1) attitudes and perceptions; (2) acquiring and integrating of knowledge; (3) extending and refining knowledge; (4) using knowledge meaningful; (5) acquiring productive habits of mind.
http://www.mcrel.org/dimensions/whathow.asp
http://www.pgcps.org/~elc/dolref.html
(Follow this link to multiple sites)
http://www.scivee.tv/node/9721
(This site contains a video lecture)
http://www.kurwongbss.eq.edu.au/thinking/Dimensions/dimensions.htm (Great 1 page handout)
12
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal Teaching
(Continued)
The ability to break a concept into its similar and dissimilar characteristics allow students to understand (and often solve) complex problems by analyzing them in a more simple way. Teachers can either directly present similarities and differences, accompanied by deep discussion and inquiry, or simply ask students to identify similarities and differences on their own. While teacher-directed activities focus on identifying specific items, student-directed activities encourage variations and broaden understanding, research shows. Research also notes that graphic forms are a good way to represent similarities and differences.
Applications:
*Use Venn diagrams or charts to compare and classify items.
*Engage students in comparing, classifying and creating metaphors and analogies by using The Thinking Maps© materials.
http://www.middleweb.com/MWLresources/
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.bookladymel.com/thinkingmaps.htm
(This site allows you to print student size Thinking Maps)
http://www.scribd.com/doc/7136653/Thinking-Maps
(This site contains a PP on the Thinking Maps)
13
Summarizing and Note taking
These skills promote greater comprehension by asking students to analyze a subject to expose what’s essential and then put it in their own words. According to research, this requires substituting, deleting, and keeping some things and having an awareness of the basic structure of the information presented.
Applications:
*Provide a set of rules for creating a summary.
*When summarizing, ask students to question what is unclear, clarify those questions, and then predict what will happen next in the text.
Research shows that taking more notes is better than fewer notes, though verbatim note taking is ineffective because it does not allow time to process the information. Teachers should encourage and give time for review and revision of notes; notes can be the best study guides for tests.
Applications:
*Use teacher-prepared notes
*Stick to a consistent format for notes, although students can refine the notes as necessary.
http://www.middleweb.com/MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://classroom.leanderisdorg/web/marazano/
http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/ACCDitg/SSnote.htm
(Follow this site to SQ3R and the Cornell Method of Note taking)
http://its.guilford.k12.nc.us/act/strategies/summary.htm
(Follow this site to a wide variety of activities to help students summarize)
14
Reinforcing Effort & Providing Recognition
Reinforcing Effort & Providing Recognition
(Continued)
Effort and recognition speak to the attitudes and beliefs of students, and teachers must show the connection between effort and achievement. Research shows that although not all students realize the importance of effort, they can learn to change their beliefs to emphasize effort.
Application:
*Share stories about people who succeeded by not giving up.
*Have students keep a log of their weekly efforts and achievements, reflect on it periodically, and even mathematically analyze the data.
According to research, recognition is most effective if it is contingent on the achievement of a certain standard. Also, symbolic recognition works better than tangible reward.
Applications:
*Find ways to personalize recognition. Give awards for individual accomplishments.
*”Pause, Prompt, Praise.” If a student is struggling, pause to discuss the problem, then prompt with specific suggestions to help her improve. If the student’s performance improves as a result, offer praise.
http://www.middleweb.com/MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://manila.esu4.org/instructionalstrategies/stories/storyReader$9
(This is a one page document taken from Marzano’s work)
http://gets.gc.k12.va.us/VSTE/2008/3effortandrecognition.htm
(Follow this link to sites that allow you to create specific award documents)
15
Non-linguistic Representation
According to research, knowledge is stored in two forms: linguistic and visual. The more students use both forms in the classroom, the more opportunity they have to achieve. Recently, use of nonlinguistic representation has proven to not only stimulate but also increase brain activity.
Applications:
*Incorporate words and images using symbols to represent relationships.
*Use physical models and physical movement to represent information.
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/nonl.php
http://www.hobart.k12.in.us/peggy/digital/class/study.pdf
(This link takes you to a PP presentation taken from “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
http://www.netc.org/focus/
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
16
Homework & Practice
(Refer to PCS Policy)
Homework & Practice
(Continued)
Homework provides students with the opportunity to extend their learning outside the classroom. However, research shows that the amount of homework assigned should vary by grade level and that parent involvement should be minimal. Teachers should explain the purpose of homework to both the student and the parent or guardian, and teachers should try to give feedback on all homework assigned.
Applications:
*Establish a homework policy with advice-such as keeping a consistent schedule, setting, and time limit-that parents and students may not have considered.
*Tell students if homework is for practice or for preparation for upcoming units.
*Maximize the effectiveness of feedback by varying the way it is delivered.
Research shows that students adapt skills while they’re learning them. Speed and accuracy are key indicators of the effectiveness of practice.
Applications:
*Assign timed quizzes for homework and have students report on their speed and accuracy.
*Focus practice on difficult concepts and set aside time to accommodate practice periods.
http://www.middleweb.com?MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.netc.org/focus/
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
http://manila.esu4.org/instructionalstrategies/stories/storyReader$10
17
Setting Objectives & Providing Feedback
Setting Objectives & Providing Feedback
Setting objectives can provide students with a direction for their learning. Goals should not be too specific; they should be easily adaptable to students’ own objectives.
Applications:
*Set a core for a unit, and then encourage students to personalize that goal by identifying areas of interest to them. Questions like “I want to know” and “I want to know more about…” get students thinking about their interests and actively involved in the goal-setting process.
*Use contracts to outline the specific goals that must attain and the grade they will receive if they meet those goals.
Research shows that feedback generally produces positive results. Teachers can never give too much; however, they should manage the form that feedback takes.
Applications:
*Make sure feedback is corrective in nature; tell students how they did in relation to specific levels of knowledge. Rubrics are a great way to do this.
*Keep feedback timely and specific.
* Encourage students to lead feedback sessions.
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://manila.esu4.org/instructionalstrategies/stories/storyReader$13
http://www.agls.uidaho.edu/fcsed/FCS461/Setting%20objectives%20and%20Providing%20feedback.pdf
(This site takes you to a PP presentation)
http://allenswanson.org/marzano/Setting_Objectives_and_Feedback.htm
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
18
Generating & Testing Hypothesis
Research shows that a deductive approach (using a general rule to make prediction) to this strategy works best. Whether a hypothesis is induced or deduced, students should clearly explain their hypotheses and conclusions.
Applications:
*Ask students to predict what would happen if an aspect of a familiar system, such as the government or transportation, were changed.
*Ask students to build something using limited resources. This task generates questions and hypotheses about what may or may not work.
http://allenswanson.org/marzano/Setting_Objectives_and_Feedback.htm
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
http://www.middleweb.com/MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://www.classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano
http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/gene.php
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
19
Cues, Questions & Advanced Organizers
Cues, Questions & Advanced Organizers
(Continued)
Cues, questions, and advance organizers help students use what they already know about a topic to enhance further learning. Research shows that these tools should be highly analytical, should focus on what is important, and are most effective when presented before a learning experience.
Applications:
*Pause briefly after asking a question. Doing so will increase the depth of your students’ answers.
*Vary the style of advance organizer used: Tell a story, skim a text, or create a graphic image. There are many ways to expose students to information before they “learn” it.
http://wwww.middleweb.com/MWLresources/marzchat1.html
http://classroom.leanderisd.org/webs/marzano/
http://www.netc.org/focus/strategies/gene.php
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
http://allenswanson.org/marzano/Setting_Objectives_and_Feedback.htm
(This site will link you to multiple sites discussing “Classroom Instruction That Works” by Marzano)
20
Mnemonics
Mnemonics are strategies for memorizing and assimilating information. It can help people to master interesting concepts and provide a lot of fun doing so. Teachers can use mnemonics to guide their presentations of material and they can teach devices that students can use to enhance their individual and cooperative study of information and concepts.
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/C0110291/tricks/mnemonics/index.php
http://www.mnemonic-device.eu/mnemonics/
(This is a fabulous resource that lists thousands)
http://www.ict4us.com/mnemonics/
(Student friendly listing.)
21
Simulations
Simulations are constructed from descriptions of real life situations. A less than real life situation is created for the instructional situation. The student engages in activity to achieve the goal of the simulation and has to do with realistic factors until the goal is mastered.
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
http://clifmims.com/blog/archives/61
http://www.brandon-hall.com/workplacelearningtoday/?p=5241
http://simschoolresources.ed.greenriver.org/portal/simschoolresources/simulations
(Follow this link to multiple sites/articles on this topic)
22
Group Investigation
Group Investigation
(Continued)
Group investigation is the direct route to the development of the community of learners. A substantial part of a students’ education should be by cooperative inquiry into important social or academic problems. Group investigation has been designed to lead students to define problems, explore various perspectives on the problems, and study together to master information, ideas, and skills-simultaneously developing their social competence.
http://wblrd.sk.ca/~bestpractice/coop/examples11.html
(A one page explanation of Group Investigations)
http://www.danielzingaro.com/gi.pdf
(This site is pulled from Cooperative Learning sites)
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
http://memory.loc.gov/learn/lessons/97/week/whome.html
(The site presents a lesson plan on US History)
23
Scientific Inquiry
From the beginning the student is brought into the scientific process and helped to collect and analyze data, check out hypotheses and theories, and reflect on the nature of knowledge construction.
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/scientific.htm
(Topic defined)
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1002
(This is our North Carolina DPI site.)
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
http://www.sciencenetlinks.com/matrix.php
(This site contains links to multiple sites on multiple science related topics)
24
Jurisprudential
Inquiry
This model is designed for secondary students in the social studies and implies the case study method, reminiscent of legal education. Students study cases involving social problems in areas where public policy is to be made (justice and equality, poverty and power etc.) They are led to identify the public policy issues as well as options available for dealing with them and the values underlying those options dealing with them and values underlying those options. This model can be used in any area where there are public policy issues for instances ethics in science, business and sports etc.
http://59.163.61.3:8080/GRATEST/SHOWTEXFILE.do?page_id=user_image&user_image_id=256
(You must scroll down ½ this document to find this model)
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/cooplrn/b3.html
25
Role Play
Role Play
(Continued)
Role playing helps students to understand social behavior, their role in social interactions, and ways of solving problems more effectively. It also helps students collect and organize information about social issues, develop empathy with others, and attempt to improve their social skills. The model requires of students to:”act out” conflicts, to learn to take the roles of others, and to observe social behavior. With adaptation role playing can be used with students of all ages.
http://www.wce.wwu.edu/Resources/CIRCLE/Strats/Role%20Playing.pdf
(PP Presentation on topic)
http://esldrama.weebly.com/how_to_roleplay.html
http://www.landmarkcases.org/pdf/role_play.pdf
http://www.jstor.org/pss/4449909
26
Teams Games Tournament
Team Games Tournaments are a cooperative learning strategy developed at John Hopkins University. It can be used as an assessment alternative and/or as a review technique.
http://www.cust.educ.ubc.ca/cust565-05/seeds/2006/213_06/CADIZ/TXT/MicroteachingTGT.pdf
(Defines topic)
http://books.google.com/books?id=gD7_VSNmu7cC&pg=RA1-PA173&lpg=RA1-PA173&dq=teams+games+tournaments&source=bl&ots=nUSpRmBwHV&sig=lyGxizi24YSGbcO4VfphKA_GXMk&hl=en&ei=ONZDSoPADZLmM6DzqZ8B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7
(The above site is a portion of a chapter taken from the work of Brophy.)
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1995/tournaments.php
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/bi/1995/tournaments.html
27
Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)
Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)
(Continued)
STAD is one of these three strategies under the umbrella of Student Learning Teams developed at John Hopkins University based on years of research on cooperative learning. In STAD, students study with 4-5 team members following a teacher presentation. Students take quizzes individually to demonstrate how much they have learned. The individual quiz scores are summed to form a team score, and teams are rewarded for their performance. Teams are made up of students with varying academic abilities, genders, and race. The entire cycle of activities, from teacher presentation to team practice to quiz, usually takes 3 to 5 class periods. STAD has been used in a wide variety of subjects, from math to language arts to social studies, and has been used from grade 2 through college. It is most appropriate for teaching well-defined objectives with single right answers, such as specific locational characteristics in geography and some map skills, knowledge of evens in history, and principles of economics or government.
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/stad.htm
http://books.google.com/books?id=gD7_VSNmu7cC&pg=RA1-PA173&lpg=RA1-PA173&dq=teams+games+tournaments&source=bl&ots=nUSpRmBwHV&sig=lyGxizi24YSGbcO4VfphKA_GXMk&hl=en&ei=ONZDSoPADZLmM6DzqZ8B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7
(The above site is a portion of a chapter taken from the work of Brophy.)
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/stad.htm
(Defines topic)
http://www.scribd.com/doc/3407929/Guidelines-Cooperative-Learning?__cache_revision=1234856118&__user_id=-1&enable_docview_caching=1
(Written by Slavin)
http://books.google.com/books?id=5fEVBpweaTgC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=student+teams+achievement+division&source=bl&ots=WyFjWqa8u6&sig=yCWeDcGVJ9hFDHSp14ropInu__A&hl=en&ei=V9pDSvWpNMWptgfJiZytAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3
(Read section on Co-operation verses Competition)
28
Synectics
Synetics operates on the principle that, by using the mind’s remarkable capacity to connect seemingly irrelevant elements of thought, we can spark surprising new ideas that may later be developed into feasible solutions to problems.
http://www.pwcs.edu/curriculum/sol/synectics.htm
http://books.google.com/books?id=aZ1XYfkghQ0C&pg=PA384&lpg=PA384&dq=synectic+model+of+instruction&source=bl&ots=Tq4TVVWCFj&sig=r6s3Dld5CpwBX7wUijM9LqXnEc4&hl=en&ei=o9tDSo6CIpCINuPa6Z8B&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10
(Topic defined)
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it.
Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members:
Ø gain from each other's efforts. (Your success benefits me and my success benefits you.)
Ø recognize that all group members share a common fate. (We all sink or swim together here.)
Ø know that one's performance is mutually caused by oneself and one's team members. (We can not do it without you.)
Ø feel proud and jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement. (We all congratulate you on your accomplishment!).
Why use Cooperative Learning?
Research has shown that cooperative learning techniques:
Ø promote student learning and academic achievement
Ø increase student retention
Ø enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience
Ø help students develop skills in oral communication
Ø develop students' social skills
Ø promote student self-esteem
Ø help to promote positive race relations
5 Elements of Cooperative Learning
It is only under certain conditions that cooperative efforts may be expected to be more productive than competitive and individualistic efforts. Those conditions are:
1. Positive Interdependence
(sink or swim together)
Ø Each group member's efforts are required and indispensable for group success
Ø Each group member has a unique contribution to make to the joint effort because of his or her resources and/or role and task responsibilities
2. Face-to-Face Interaction
(promote each other's success)
Ø Orally explaining how to solve problems
Ø Teaching one's knowledge to other
Ø Checking for understanding
Ø Discussing concepts being learned
Ø Connecting present with past learning
3. Individual & Group Accountability
( no hitchhiking! no social loafing)
Ø Keeping the size of the group small. The smaller the size of the group, the greater the individual accountability may be.
Ø Giving an individual test to each student.
Ø Randomly examining students orally by calling on one student to present his or her group's work to the teacher (in the presence of the group) or to the entire class.
Ø Observing each group and recording the frequency with which each member-contributes to the group's work.
Ø Assigning one student in each group the role of checker. The checker asks other group members to explain the reasoning and rationale underlying group answers.
Ø Having students teach what they learned to someone else.
4. Interpersonal & Small-Group Skills
Social skills must be taught:
Ø Leadership
Ø Decision-making
Ø Trust-building
Ø Communication
Ø Conflict-management skills
5. Group Processing
Ø Group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining effective working relationships
Ø Describe what member actions are helpful and not helpful
Ø Make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change
Class Activities that use Cooperative Learning
Most of these structures are developed by Dr. Spencer Kagan and his associates at Kagan Publishing and Professional Development. For resources and professional development information on Kagan Structures, please visit: www.KaganOnline.com
1. Jigsaw - Groups with five students are set up. Each group member is assigned some unique material to learn and then to teach to his group members. To help in the learning students across the class working on the same sub-section get together to decide what is important and how to teach it. After practice in these "expert" groups the original groups reform and students teach each other. (Wood, p. 17) Tests or assessment follows.
2. Think-Pair-Share - Involves a three step cooperative structure. During the first step individuals think silently about a question posed by the instructor. Individuals pair up during the second step and exchange thoughts. In the third step, the pairs share their responses with other pairs, other teams, or the entire group.
3. Three-Step Interview (Kagan) - Each member of a team chooses another member to be a partner. During the first step individuals interview their partners by asking clarifying questions. During the second step partners reverse the roles. For the final step, members share their partner's response with the team.
4. RoundRobin Brainstorming (Kagan)- Class is divided into small groups (4 to 6) with one person appointed as the recorder. A question is posed with many answers and students are given time to think about answers. After the "think time," members of the team share responses with one another round robin style. The recorder writes down the answers of the group members. The person next to the recorder starts and each person in the group in order gives an answer until time is called.
5. Three-minute review - Teachers stop any time during a lecture or discussion and give teams three minutes to review what has been said, ask clarifying questions or answer questions.
6. Numbered Heads Together (Kagan) - A team of four is established. Each member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4. Questions are asked of the group. Groups work together to answer the question so that all can verbally answer the question. Teacher calls out a number (two) and each two is asked to give the answer.
7. Team Pair Solo (Kagan)- Students do problems first as a team, then with a partner, and finally on their own. It is designed to motivate students to tackle and succeed at problems which initially are beyond their ability. It is based on a simple notion of mediated learning. Students can do more things with help (mediation) than they can do alone. By allowing them to work on problems they could not do alone, first as a team and then with a partner, they progress to a point they can do alone that which at first they could do only with help.8. Circle the Sage (Kagan)- First the teacher polls the class to see which students have a special knowledge to share. For example the teacher may ask who in the class was able to solve a difficult math homework question, who had visited Mexico, who knows the chemical reactions involved in how salting the streets help dissipate snow. Those students (the sages) stand and spread out in the room. The teacher then has the rest of the classmates each surround a sage, with no two members of the same team going to the same sage. The sage explains what they know while the classmates listen, ask questions, and take notes. All students then return to their teams. Each in turn, explains what they learned. Because each one has gone to a different sage, they compare notes. If there is disagreement, they stand up as a team. Finally, the disagreements are aired and resolved.
9. Partners (Kagan) - The class is divided into teams of four. Partners move to one side of the room. Half of each team is given an assignment to master to be able to teach the other half. Partners work to learn and can consult with other partners working on the same material. Teams go back together with each set of partners teaching the other set. Partners quiz and tutor teammates. Team reviews how well they learned and taught and how they might improve the process.
Credits:
David and Roger Johnson. "Cooperative Learning." [Online] 15 October 2001. <http://www.clcrc.com/pages/cl.html>.
David and Roger Johnson. "An Overview of Cooperative Learning." [Online] 15 October 2001. <http://www.clcrc.com/pages/overviewpaper.html>.
Howard Community College's Teaching Resources. "Ideas on Cooperative Learning and the use of Small Groups." [Online] 15 October 2001.<http://www.howardcc.edu/profdev/resources/learning/groups1.htm>.
Kagan, S. Kagan Structures for Emotional Intelligence. Kagan Online Magazine. 2001, 4(4). http://www.kaganonline.com/Newsletter/index.html
Reference
Kagan, Spencer. Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Publishing, 1994.www.KaganOnline.com